Exploring Relational Self-Efficacy Among Teachers in Sabah, Malaysia:
A Quantitative Study
Fung
Lan Yong1* , Florence
Chuah2
, Steward G. Stephen3 Sawanah Mumin4 ,
Loreta Ling Ling Uie5, Ming Ha Lee6
1Postgraduate Studies,
Jesselton University College,
88300 Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia Email: fungyong@jesselton.edu.my
2Inclusive GEMS Consultancy, 46200
Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia Email: florencecsy@gmail.com
3Department of Social Science
and Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia Sarawak,
Malaysia Email: stewardgiman@upm.edu.my
4Department of Social Science
and Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia Sarawak,
Malaysia Email: sawanahmumin@upm.edu.my
5Business Studies,
Jesselton University College,
88300 Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia Email: loretaling8383@gmail.com
6Faculty of Engineering, Computing
and Science, Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus, 93350 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
Email: mhlee@swinburne.edu.my
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR (*):
Fung Lan Yong (fungyong@jesselton.edu.my)
KEYWORDS:
Relational self-efficacy Teachers
Sabah, Malaysia
CITATION:
Yong, F. L., Chuah, F., Stephen, S. G., Mumin, S., Uie, L. L. L., & Lee, M. H. (2026). Exploring Relational Self-Efficacy Among Teachers in Sabah, Malaysia: A Quantitative Study. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 11(1), e003756. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v11i1.3756
ABSTRACT
The purpose of
this study was to examine relational self- efficacy among teachers in Sabah,
Malaysia. It aimed to determine (1) if there were any significant differences
in relational self-efficacy among teachers by way of age, gender, and job
experience and (2) the percentages of agreement in relational self-efficacy
among teachers in Sabah, Malaysia. The sample consisted of 69 teachers, who
completed the Teacher Relational Self-Efficacy Scale on Google Forms. Data were
subsequently transferred onto a spreadsheet and analyzed by using SPSS 26.0.
Mann- Whitney U test was run to determine if significant gender differences
existed in teacher relational self-efficacy, while Kruskal-Wallis H test was
conducted to determine if significant differences existed in terms of age and
work experience. Findings showed nonsignificant differences in relational
self-efficacy by way of age, gender, and job experience. Further, descriptive
statistics showed that the mean score of relational self-efficacy was 32.91 for
males and 32.35 for females, implying that teachers tend to have an average
level of relational self-efficacy. In light of the findings, recommendations were made on how to increase
teacher relational self-efficacy in Sabah,
Malaysia.
|
Contribution/Originality: This research offers
a valuable contribution by examining |
|
teacher relational self-efficacy in Sabah, Malaysia. Besides narrowing the gap that |
|
exists in educational psychology in the Malaysian context, it is the first
quantitative |
|
study that examines teacher relational self-efficacy in the island
state. Therefore, it |
|
adds to the very
limited evidence base
on teachers’ conviction in their capacity to |
|
accomplish
particular teaching and learning outcomes by executing actions
needed to |
produce desired results
within the educational context in Sabah.
1. Introduction
Teacher
self-efficacy has received widespread attention in the educational field since
its conceptualization 40 years ago. Extensive research in the USA has shown
that teacher self-efficacy is
significantly linked to instructional effectiveness, psychological
wellbeing, job satisfaction, innovative teaching practices, personal
accomplishment, internship experience, and students’ academic achievement.
Additionally, teachers with high self- efficacy tend to experience less job
stress and encounter fewer difficulties when dealing with problematic students
(Gkolia, Belia, & Koustelios, 2014; Klassen & Chiu, 2011; Klassen & Tze,
2014; Michos et al., 2022).
According to
the behavioral theory of social-cognitive change (Bandura, 1977;
1993; 2006), teacher self-efficacy is
defined as teachers’ belief in their capability to adequately handle pedagogic
issues and challenges related to their profession. After reviewing 40 years of
teacher self-efficacy research, Zee and Koomen (2016) concluded that teachers’ self-referent judgments of
capability exert a powerful influence on a broad spectrum of adjustment
outcomes of classroom ecology. In general, teacher self-efficacy tends to have a positive association with
technological acceptance, teachers’ emotional intelligence, online instruction,
professional development, and internship experiences (Cardullo, et al.,
2021; Cordova, 2021; Dolighan &
Owen, 2021; Michos, et al., 2022; Valente et al., 2020).
1.1. Significance of the Study
Although
widely researched in Europe and America, conceptualization and application of teacher self-efficacy in the Malaysian
context is still relatively new. A review of literature showed that no research
on teacher self-efficacy has been conducted in the Bornean state of Sabah. It
is imperative to gain deeper insight into Malaysian teachers’ self-efficacy
because it equips them with the perceived self-assertiveness and self-
competence to promote students’ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development.
It also deserves urgent attention as it often impacts teachers’ professional
and personal lives in terms of interpersonal relationships, job performance,
and psychological wealth, as well as how they care for themselves and others.
Further,
research on self-efficacy provides a relevant and coherent framework for
teachers to become effective classroom managers characterized by effective
self- organization, self-reflection, and self-regulation. Therefore, the
construct should be thoroughly researched and subsequently integrated into
Malaysian teachers’ professional development programs to augment their
pedagogic agency and instructional effectiveness in line with SDG 4 Quality
Education. As aforementioned, there is very little research that offers an interdisciplinary
perspective in the examination of teacher self-efficacy in the Malaysian
educational landscape; therefore, this study will contribute to the existing
body of knowledge in education psychology by yielding pragmatic information for
school leaders and policymakers to implement self- efficacy programs that can
reinforce the psychosocial attributes and professional standards among
Malaysian teachers. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate
teacher relational self-efficacy in Sabah, Malaysia. To guide the study, two
research questions were formulated for the study:
i.
Are there any significant differences in teacher
relational self-efficacy in relation to age, gender, and job experience?
ii.
What are the descriptive statistics for teacher self-efficacy in Sabah, Malaysia and what do they imply?
2. Review of
Literature
A literature
review was conducted to obtain a comprehensive survey of scholarly sources on
self-efficacy, which provided an overview of existing knowledge related to the construct, while helping the authors
to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the research through
analysis, evaluation, and synthesis of the literature. It situated the current
research within the broader educational context, besides justifying the need
for the research and positioning it within the existing scholarly inquiry and
discussion. Lastly, the research summaries were described in direct chronology,
starting from 2012.
2.1. Collective Efficacy
and Classroom Management
Research shows
that self-efficacy tends to have an impact on teachers, preservice teachers,
and students. Gibbs and Powell (2012), who examined
the individual and collective efficacy among primary and nursery school
teachers in relation with students’ behavior, disclosed that teachers'
individual efficacy beliefs tend to be significantly related to classroom
management, students’ engagement, and teaching methods. Moreover, confronting
external influences in collective efficacy was found to be negatively related
to the number of children sanctioned; it also tends to reduce the harmful
effects related to poor socioeconomic status.
On the other
hand, Derrington and Angelle (2013) investigated the association between collective
efficacy and leadership ability among teachers. Findings revealed that
collective efficacy tends to be significantly related to leadership ability.
Additionally, collective efficacy was found to be significantly associated with
shared expertise, shared leadership, supra practitioner, and principal
selection. Lastly, the two highest rated items
were found to be the extent to which teachers solicit colleagues’ help
concerning disciplinary problems and willingness to assist peers on teaching
unfamiliar topics or skills.
In their
investigation into the relationships among teachers’ collective efficacy, self-
efficacy, occupational resources, occupational demands, sense of belonging, and
teacher involvement, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2019) imparted that three occupational resources and
occupational demands tend to be positively correlated. Time constraint was
found to be significantly related to all occupational resources,
while collective efficacy and self-
efficacy tend to be moderately correlated. Additionally, both collective
efficacy and self- efficacy were found to be positively correlated with
occupational resources. Lastly, sense
of belonging was found to be positively correlated with occupational resources,
collective efficacy, and self-efficacy, while involvement tends to be
positively correlated with all occupational resources, collective efficacy, and
sense of belonging.
Jaggernauth and Jameson-Charles (2015), who investigated the
efficacy of secondary school teachers undergoing in-service training, indicated
that older in-service teachers tend to demonstrate higher efficacy, while those
over 45 years tend to display significantly higher efficacy in classroom management
than their younger peers. Besides, teachers
at government-assisted schools
tend to exhibit significantly higher
efficacy for student engagement and classroom management compared to
those at full- government schools.
Further, Bedir (2015), who examined the teaching efficacy among
primary and secondary school teachers, published that teachers tend to regard
themselves as efficient in class
management, while perceiving instructional methods/strategies as their least efficient. Lastly, significant
differences were found in teachers’ perception of teaching efficacy in terms of
faculty, gender, course match, in-service training, branch, and seniority.
In their
study, Malinen, Närhi, and Savolainen (2024) assessed the relationship between teacher
self-efficacy and classroom behavioral climate. Findings revealed that behavior
management tends to significantly influence classroom behavioral climate, but
not vice versa. Findings imply the cruciality of raising teachers’ beliefs and
perceived self- competence in their ability to set clear expectations, foster
collegial relationships, and propagate a supportive learning culture to promote
proactive engagement, self- discipline, respectful communication, cooperation,
and responsible task completion amongst students.
The
self-efficacy and performance among teachers were analyzed by Gamuza, Lachica, and Bautis (2025). Findings revealed that teachers tend to
demonstrate high self- efficacy in terms of classroom management and
instructional delivery. Additionally, significant differences in self-efficacy
and performance were found by way of age, teaching experience, and educational
attainment. Teachers with higher qualifications tend to demonstrate greater
confidence and effectiveness, while older, married, and more experienced
teachers tend to earn higher performance ratings. Findings imply the importance
of teacher training on adaptive instruction and learner support; targeted
programs should be implemented to enhance the self-efficacy among younger and
less experienced teachers, which can optimize instructional support and
performance.
The influence
of academic optimism/collective efficacy on teacher self‐efficacy was examined
by Mavi, Tuti, and Ozdemir (2025).
Findings revealed that academic optimism and self‐efficacy among teachers tend
to be significantly related. Further, the relationship between the two
variables was found to be mediated by the professional development and
subjective wellbeing among teachers. Findings imply that academic optimism is
an important aspect of collective efficacy, academic emphasis, and trust in
students and parents, which represents a shared belief among teachers that they
can positively impact student
achievement. Teacher self-efficacy contributes to the collective efficacy, which is a component
of academic optimism, while a supportive, optimistic school environment helps
bolster teachers’ belief in their own capabilities. Overall, both academic
optimism and self-efficacy are associated with increased teacher job
satisfaction, better instructional practices, and improved student achievement.
2.2. Attitudes, Values,
and Motivation
Additionally, Marzuki et al. (2017) surveyed
the degree to which ethics education was integrated into the curriculum by
accounting teachers and its relationship with self- efficacy in teaching
ethics. Findings revealed that attitudes toward ethics education and support
from department heads and peers tend
to have a significant and positive impact on
self-efficacy. Moreover, self-efficacy and peer support
were found to have a direct
and positive influence on the integration of ethics education into the
curriculum. Lastly, self-
efficacy appears to be a significant mediator in the interrelationships
among attitudes, department heads, and peers.
In their study, Barni, Danioni,
and Beneven (2019) delved into the relationships between teachers’ self-efficacy and their
moral-ethical values (willingness to change, conservation, self-enhancement,
and self-transcendence). Findings showed that conservation values tend to be positively
related to self-efficacy, regardless of the type and level of teaching
motivation. Lastly, teaching motivation was found to be significantly influence
the relationship between self-efficacy and willingness to change and between
self-efficacy and self-transcendence.
In their
survey on biology teachers’ motivational orientations (self-efficacy, subject-
matter enthusiasm, and enthusiasm for subject teaching), Mahler, Großschedl,
and Harms (2017) concluded that a
significant relationship tends to exist
between perceived quality of teacher education and self-efficacy,
implying that self-efficacy appears to improve with increasing perceived
teacher education quality. Moreover, participation in career development
courses and self-study were found to be significantly related to self-
efficacy. Lastly, self-efficacy and subject-matter enthusiasm were found to be
positively related to subject-matter knowledge, while career development and
self-study tend to be positively
linked to self-efficacy.
On the other
hand, Demirtaş (2018), who studied teacher
candidates’ self-efficacy, affection levels for children, and motivation,
claimed that teacher candidates tend to demonstrate a high level of affection
for children, besides obtaining higher than average scores in teaching motivation and self-efficacy. showed
greater inner motivation to teach rather than
external motivation. Moreover, teacher candidates were also found to
demonstrate sufficient capacity for classroom management, application of
educational strategies, and student motivation. Overall, self-efficacy beliefs,
students’ participation, teaching motivation, and teaching strategies tend to
significantly and positively predict affection for children.
Lastly, Cardullo et al. (2021), who assessed the relationship between
teachers’ motivational self-efficacy and learning management system (LMS),
claimed that perceived usefulness of LMS and its quality tends to significantly
predict teachers’ motivational self-efficacy in online instruction. Further,
LMS functions and Internet speed were found to predict teachers’ ability to
motivate students online, while positive LMS perceptions and facilitating
school or district conditions tend to predict their confidence to engage
students online.
2.2. Pedagogical Practices, Training, and Professional Development
In their
inquiry into the relationships among efficacy, differentiated instruction, and
collaboration among elementary school teachers, Goddard and Kim
(2018) disclosed that collaboration tends to be
significantly related to differentiated instruction, while differentiated
instruction tends to be significantly related to efficacy. Additionally,
teachers’ collaborative work was found to significantly influence school
enhancement, curriculum, pedagogy, and career development, while teacher
efficacy was found to be strengthened by mastery experiences via collaboration
and practice of differentiated instruction.
The impact of self-efficacy
training on English teachers was explored by Alibakhshi, Nikdel and Labbafi (2020).
Findings showed that self-efficacy tends
to exert an influence on teachers’
pedagogical practices, psychological wellbeing, and occupational satisfaction,
and students’ motivation and academic achievement. Additionally, Kazanopoulos, Tejada, and Basogain (2022), who investigated the
effect of self-efficacy training on teachers’ inclusive practices, found that
special education teachers tend to have higher efficacy in using inclusive
techniques, collaborating, and addressing disruptive behaviors. Moreover,
training was found to significantly influence teachers’ self-efficacy in terms
of inclusive practices, with special education teaching experience having a
significant influence on all components of self-efficacy.
Cordova (2021) investigated
the impact of a professional development program on collective teacher efficacy
of three lead teachers and a site supervisor. Findings revealed that the
program tends to significantly increase one teacher’s self-
perception/capabilities. Additionally,
all four participants were found to
demonstrate an increased willingness to offer assistance to other staff,
besides demonstrating improved feelings about the program, which tends to
enhance collective teacher efficacy and positively impact instructional
practices. In their investigation into teachers’ efficacy for online teaching, Dolighan and Owen (2021) found
that significant relationships tend to exist between teacher efficacy and
online professional development. Teachers who took online professional
development courses before fully transitioning to online instruction were found
to demonstrate significantly higher virtual teaching efficacy.
Similarly, in
their quantitative analysis on the impact of a professional education program
on teacher self-efficacy, Purniningtyas, Fauziati, and
Rochsantiningsih (2024) found that
teachers with high self-efficacy tend to consistently demonstrate job
motivation, perseverance, and sociability, which are critical
traits for effective classroom management. Moreover, the structured components of the
program (material deepening, learning
tool development, pedagogy) were also found to significantly improve teacher
self-efficacy. Findings imply that well-designed professional development
programs not only enhance teacher self-efficacy, but also equip them with
effective classroom management skills.
Lastly, Jud et al. (2025) investigated
teacher self-efficacy (mastery and vicarious experiences) in promoting
self-regulated learning within a professional development program. Both control
and experimental groups were exposed to mastery and vicarious experiences.
Findings showed that the experimental group tends to focus on developing
competencies for promoting self-regulated learning. While the professional development program has developed teacher
self-efficacy/self-regulated learning for both groups, the experimental group
was found to show higher improvement.
2.3 Instructional Quality,
Differentiated Instruction, and STEM Instruction
Cayirdag (2017), who investigated the relationship between
teachers’ creative instruction and teaching for innovation, divulged that
creative self-efficacy and locus of control tend to explain 65 percent of the
variance, with creative self-efficacy and internality acting as significant
predictors.
Asserting that
teacher self-efficacy is an important dimension of instruction, Ismail and Wahid (2018) summarized that
50 percent of classroom delivery tends to be unsatisfactory, characterized by
dull and unattractive teaching, with teachers adopting
the passive
lecture method. Their findings indicated that teachers need to make a paradigm
shift in content delivery, which requires them to develop high self-efficacy in
applying information technology to meet the needs of the Z and Alpha
generations. Further, in their investigation into the direct and indirect paths
between teacher self- efficacy and student outcomes, Jerrim et al.
(2024) illustrated that the link
between teacher self-efficacy and instructional quality tends to rely on how
lesson quality is assessed, yielding large effects when it is based on teacher
reported outcomes.
In their
research study, Kalinowski et al. (2024) focused on teachers’ professional characteristics
needed to successfully implement differentiated instruction. Findings showed
that teacher self-efficacy and enthusiasm tend to be positively related to
differentiated instruction for students with different achievement levels.
Besides, assessment techniques were found to be positively related to all
achievement levels, except for high achievers. Findings imply that teacher
training programs should promote
differentiated instruction by strengthening teacher self-efficacy, assessment
methods, and enthusiasm.
Lastly, Sellami et al. (2025) posited
that teachers tend to possess high self-efficacy in STEM instruction. Moreover, teachers
with high self-efficacy and advanced degrees
were found to have significantly higher confidence in designing STEM
lessons, managing classroom behavior, teaching STEM subjects, motivating
students, and assessing student performance. Findings highlight the importance of targeted professional development in promoting positive attitudes toward
STEM and inclusive teaching practices by enhancing
teacher self-efficacy.
2.4. Other Influential Factors
Batool and Shah (2018), who surveyed the causative factors of
school teachers’ efficacy, imparted that subject specialization tends to
significantly influence teacher efficacy the most, followed by gender, class
size, and teaching experience. Moreover, significant differences in efficacy
were also found between public and private school teachers, between the more
experienced and less experienced ones, between males and females, and between
teachers with large classes and those with small ones.
In their study
on the impact of emotional intelligence on teachers’ efficacy, Valente et al. (2020) reiterated that
teachers with better skills in perceiving, understanding, expressing,
classifying, managing, and regulating emotions tend to demonstrate higher
efficacy. Additionally, teachers with better skills in perceiving and managing
emotions were found to enhance students’ personal development, besides
establishing a positive and self-regulatory teaching and learning environment.
Lastly, findings imply that, to thrive in a complex and challenging school
environment, teachers must develop the critical emotional skills to enhance
their efficacy.
On the other
hand, Baş (2021) surveyed
the impact of student-related and school- related factors on teachers’
efficacy. Findings showed that both student-related and school-related factors
tend to have a significant impact on teacher efficacy. Parental involvement (student-related factor) and class size (school-related
factor) were found to be the most substantial predictors of teacher
efficacy, with social and academic dimensions of school climate as significant
contributors.
In their two
quantitative studies that probed the relationships among teacher self-
efficacy, internship experiences, and teaching enthusiasm in relation to a
mobile portfolio app, Michos et al. (2022) found that internship experience tends to have a
significant influence on teaching enthusiasm, with self-efficacy increasing
over time. Further, self-efficacy teaching internship, internship experience,
and different study groups were found to explain more than 30 percent of the
variance in self-efficacy. Moreover, internship experience was found to
significantly predict self-efficacy, implying
that it tends to have a positive overall effect on self-efficacy and teaching enthusiasm.
In their
investigation, Wang et al. (2024)
examined the impact of resilience and teaching satisfaction on the
relationship between self-efficacy and teacher wellbeing. Findings revealed
that both resilience and teaching satisfaction tend to mediate the relationship
between self-efficacy and teacher wellbeing. Additionally, teaching
satisfaction tends to primarily enhance teacher job commitment and professional
growth, while resilience tends to play a crucial role in positive adaptation,
stress management, and emotional regulation amongst teachers.
Finally, in a recent
study, Ordynans et al. (2025) probed the ways in which teachers
from diverse teaching contexts tend to derive meaning of their work by
focusing on three factors, including teacher self-efficacy (internal),
teacher-student relationship building (behavioral), and teaching context
(environmental). Findings revealed that the three factors tend to influence one
another as well as teachers’ perceptions of their work. Further, teacher
self-efficacy was found to both influence and be influenced by their
relationships with students, a dynamic
that tends to be impacted by the
teaching context and their perceived
fit within it. Findings imply that teacher preparation programs should
emphasize the relational and contextual aspects of teaching, including the
enhancement of teacher-student relationships and greater alignment between the school environment and teachers’
moral-ethical values.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design and
Approach
A quantitative
survey approach was adopted to systematically investigate teacher relational
self-efficacy. The research design was directly related to the primary purpose
of the current study, which was to explore 69 secondary school teachers’
self-efficacy using a validated scale. Via the quantitative method, the authors
were able to numerically evaluate teacher relational self-efficacy by using a
reliable measurement tool. Lastly, the research approach was also appropriate
to determine if significant differences existed in relational self-efficacy by
way of gender, age, and job experience through nonparametric testing
(Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis H tests).
Besides, a
Likert-scale questionnaire was administered on Google Forms, which facilitated
efficient data collection from teachers, while warranting adequate
representation within the sample. The survey method could enhance not just the
reliability and validity of the research findings, but also their
generalizability to broader educational contexts. Furthermore, the study design
also permitted effective statistical analysis via SPSS 26.0, which could
furnish numerical-based information required to interpret data and report
findings, derive meaningful conclusions, and make recommendations on how teachers can enhance their relational self-efficacy to
positively influence students’ cognitive, affective, and psychomotor development,
besides managing
their own psychological wealth.
3.2. Research Location
This study was
conducted in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, where 18 large secondary schools are located. The location can provide a
sufficiently representative sample of the teacher population in Sabah, thus
allowing for a relatively accurate assessment of teacher relational
self-efficacy.
3.3. Sample and Justification
A total of 69
teachers (n = 69) from three large
secondary schools in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah participated in the study. Initially,
the first author contacted principals of nine randomly chosen secondary schools
via email and phone, but eventually, only three agreed to share the survey link
with teachers and urge them to respond. Additionally, the first writer also shared the survey link with 15 secondary
school teachers via Messenger and requested them to share it with teaching
colleagues; all were reminded to
complete the questionnaire within seven days.
The sample
size was grounded on the central limit theorem, which states that a minimum of
30 respondents is generally adequate to ensure sufficient statistical power for
basic survey research (Roscoe, 1975; RUBIKTOP, 2023). Therefore, the current sample size can be
considered large enough for the sampling distribution of the mean to be
approximately normal. It also offers the statistical validity to allow the
authors to utilize appropriate statistical tests to make inferences about the
teacher population in Sabah. Lastly, as the sample size is greater than 30, the
standard error (variability of the sample mean) is reduced significantly,
leading to more precise estimates of the population mean.
3.4. Instrument
The eight-item
Teacher Relational Self-Efficacy Scale (Robinson, 2020) was adapted to collect data. Responses for each item
were based on a 5-point Likert scale (ranging from “strongly disagree” to
“strongly agree”). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) conducted by Robinson (2020) showed that the scale fit a one-factor model, 𝜒𝜒2(20) = 26.73, p =
.14; RMSEA =
.07, 90% CI [.00, .13]; CFI = .956. After extracting a factor score for the
scale, it was found that the correlation with the unit-weighted composite was
.99. To determine its suitability for the current study, it was pilot-tested on
25 teachers and data was analyzed by using
SPSS 26.0. Results showed that its Cronbach’s alpha is 0.889, indicating high internal consistency. The full
score is 40 (high = 36-40, average = 32-35, low = less than 32).
3.4. Data Collection and Analysis
After being informed of the ethical
guidelines in survey
research, teachers were required
to complete the scale on Google Forms. Informed consent in relation to the
purpose of the study, its voluntary nature, and the possibility to withdraw at
any time without any repercussions was emphasized. All teachers were anonymized
and the data were kept strictly confidential.
Only general information was
solicited and would be solely used
for scholarly purposes.
Data were
transferred onto a spreadsheet and subsequently analyzed using SPSS 26.0.
First, means and percentages on teacher relational self-efficacy were
calculated. Second, Kruskal-Wallis H test was conducted to determine if there
were any significant differences in relation to age and job experience. Third,
Mann-Whitney U test was run to
determine if there were any significant differences in terms of gender.
4. Findings
Descriptive
statistics showed that male and female teachers obtained a mean score of 32.63,
indicating an average level of relational self-efficacy (see Table 1).
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics of Independent Variables
|
Variable |
Category |
Frequency |
Percentage |
Self-efficacy Means |
|
Gender |
Male |
23 |
33.3% |
32.91 |
|
|
Female |
46 |
66.7% |
32.35 |
|
Age |
25-35 |
13 |
18.8% |
32.77 |
|
|
36-45 |
25 |
36.2% |
32.24 |
|
|
46-55 |
20 |
29.0% |
32.70 |
|
|
56-60 |
11 |
15.9% |
32.64 |
|
Job title |
Inclusive teacher |
5 |
69.6% |
35.60 |
|
|
Regular teacher |
48 |
7.2% |
32.15 |
|
|
Special education |
16 |
23.2% |
32.75 |
|
Job experience |
1-5 years |
8 |
11.6% |
32.38 |
|
|
6-10 years |
11 |
15.9% |
32.91 |
|
|
11-15 years |
18 |
26.1% |
33.50 |
|
|
16-20 years |
9 |
46.3% |
29.67 |
|
|
More than 20 years |
23 |
11.6% |
32.78 |
Mean values:
High = 36 to 40; Average
= 32 to 35; Low = Less than 32
Mann-Whitney U test revealed
no significant gender
differences, while Kruskal-Wallis H test revealed no significant differences in terms of gender and job experience (see Table 2).
Table 2: Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis Results
|
Age |
Sample size |
Mean rank |
Test statistic |
Degrees of freedom |
p-value |
|
25 – 35 |
13 |
35.85 |
0.51 |
3 |
0.997 |
|
36 – 45 |
25 |
34.38 |
|
|
|
|
46 – 55 |
20 |
35.13 |
|
|
|
|
56 – 60 |
11 |
35.18 |
|
|
|
|
Gender |
Sample size |
Mean rank |
Test statistic |
Degrees of
freedom |
p-value |
|
Male |
23 |
35.72 |
-0.215 |
1 |
0.829 |
|
Female |
46 |
34.64 |
|
|
|
|
Job experience |
Sample size |
Rank |
Test statistic |
Degrees of
freedom |
p-value |
|
1-5 years |
8 |
34.13 |
3.45 |
4 |
0.485 |
|
6-10 years |
11 |
37.82 |
|
|
|
|
11-15 years |
18 |
38.5 |
|
16-20 years |
9 |
24.44 |
|
More than 20
years |
23 |
35.35 |
Percentages of
“strongly agree” and “agree” for each item were collapsed to get an overall impression of relational self-efficacy. First, between 78.3 to 79.7 percent strongly agreed/agreed that they could (1) make students enjoy attending school
and (2) support students emotionally. Second, 88.4 percent of teachers
strongly agreed/agreed that they could (1) build positive relationships with all their students and (2) get students to trust them. Third, 87 to 89.9 percent
strongly agreed/agreed that they (1) felt capable of designing relationship
activities in their classroom, (2) could improve the relationship with students
even if it started out poorly, (3) could cultivate a positive relationship with under-performing students, and (4)
could build positive relationships with students
who come from different backgrounds (see Table 3).
Table 3: Percentages of Agreement on Self-efficacy Items
|
Item |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
4+5 (Collapsed) |
|
I can build
positive relationships with all
my students. |
0.0% |
2.9% |
8.7% |
62.3% |
26.1% |
88.4% |
|
I can support students emotionally. |
0.0% |
2.9% |
17.4% |
58.0% |
21.7% |
79.7% |
|
I can make
students enjoy coming
to school. |
0.0% |
0.0% |
21.7% |
55.1% |
23.2% |
78.3% |
|
I can get my students to trust me. |
0.0% |
0.0% |
11.6% |
66.7% |
21.7% |
88.4% |
|
I feel
capable of designing relationship building activities in my classroom. |
0.0% |
1.4% |
14.5% |
63.8% |
20.3% |
84.1% |
|
I can improve the relationship with
a student even if it starts out poorly. |
0.0% |
1.4% |
14.5% |
63.8% |
20.3% |
84.1% |
|
I can cultivate a positive relationship with students who are not performing
well. |
1.4% |
0.0% |
11.6% |
66.7% |
20.3% |
87% |
|
I can build
positive relationships with students who come from different
backgrounds from me. |
0.0% |
0.0% |
10.1% |
58.0% |
31.9% |
89.9% |
Strongly Agree
= 5, Agree = 4, Neutral =3, Disagree = 2, Strongly
Disagree = 1
5. Implications, and Recommendations
5.1. Implications
5.1.1. Nonsignificant Differences
Findings revealed no significant differences in teacher self-efficacy in
relation to age, gender, and job experience, which were supported by previous
research. Nikoopour et al. (2012), who examined the
relationship between trait emotional intelligence and self- efficacy among
English language teachers, found no significant age and gender effects on
both variables. Sarfo et al. (2015), who investigated teacher
self-efficacy in relation to instructional strategies, classroom
management, and student
engagement, disclosed that both male and female teachers did not
differ in terms of student engagement efficacies and classroom management.
Additionally, Yusof and Mariani (2017),
who studied teacher self-efficacy in relation to gender, teaching
experience, and teacher
training,
disclosed no significant gender differences in relation to self-efficacy
and teacher training.
Further, Strunc and Murray (2019), who asked teachers gender-neutral
questions about self-efficacy, found no significant gender differences, which
suggests that gender outcomes in education might not be due perceived self-efficacy alone.
On the other hand, Mitchell (2019), who investigated the relationship between
teacher self-efficacy and classroom management found no significant differences
in relation to age, gender, education level, teaching experience, grade level
taught, and class size, implying that teachers’ characteristics are not
significant predictors of self-efficacy.
In their
study, Rezaian and Abdollahzadeh (2020) discovered no significant differences between
collective teacher efficacy and self-efficacy and their respective subscales.
Moreover, no significant age, experiential, and gender differences were found
in teacher perceptions across all subscales of collective teacher efficacy or
teacher self-efficacy, implying that self-efficacy tends to be stable once
established. Finally, Kazanopoulos, Tejada, and Basogain (2022),
who analyzed the effect of a training program on teacher self-efficacy,
concluded that age and gender did not significantly influence teacher self-
efficacy in relation to inclusive practices.
5.1.2. Possible Reasons for Average Relational Self-Efficacy
Findings imply
that Sabahan teachers tend to have an average level of relational self-
efficacy, rather than high. Teacher self-efficacy can be affected by five
factors. First, about 418,000
teachers in Malaysia continue to carry heavy workloads, often being assigned
tasks unrelated to their core professional responsibilities. One of the
contributors to the overwhelming workload is the current user-unfriendly online
data entry system, which complicates administrative tasks. Besides the lack of
clear guidelines to prevent
non-urgent disruptions outside
official working hours,
other issues include the
ongoing shortage of teachers due to retirements and the addition of new classes
(Malay Mail, 2025).
Second, Ligin and Ompok (2025), who examined the relationship between
perceived organizational support and teacher motivation at rural primary
schools in Sabah, concluded that a more appropriate support and reward system
is needed to boost their motivation, which will lead to high self-efficacy.
Third, Roslan, Mosin, and Gani (2025), who explored the
professional challenges faced by teachers at remote Sabah, revealed that their
instructional management and job satisfaction tend to be adversely affected by
inadequate infrastructure, including poor road access, limited school
facilities, unstable electricity supply, and weak Internet connectivity, which
can affect their self-efficacy. Other concurrent factors that impact on their
self-efficacy are psychosocial challenges, such as, professional isolation,
excessive workload, and limited opportunities for career development.
Fourth, Kaur et al. (2024) reiterated
that burnout tends to be a significant issue among teachers in Malaysia, with
teacher self-efficacy showing a significant correlation with it. In other
words, teacher self-efficacy can be adversely affected by various factors of
burnout, including demographics, work-related issues, stress, work life areas,
and psychological distress.
Finally,
Malaysian teachers are currently required to use the Training Management System
of Ministry of Education Malaysia to manage their continuing professional development
and training, which poses a serious administrative burden that significantly affects their primary
responsibilities. Many teachers often have to spend many hours navigating the
system after school or during weekends, just to ensure that they meet all the
requirements. This leaves them with little time to focus on lesson preparation
and students’ needs, while others maintain that the system does not function
properly and frequently crashes during peak hours, forcing them to redo their
work. Moreover, the technical issues tend to further increase teachers’ stress
levels and infringe on their personal time and wellbeing (Hilkmy, 2025).
5. Mastery and Vicarious Experiences, Social Persuasion, and Positive States
Teacher
self-efficacy can be developed from mastery experiences, vicarious experiences,
social persuasion, and positive interpretations of physiological and emotional
states (The Education Hub,
2019). First, teachers can improve their self-efficacy through
previous successful accomplishments; these accomplishments may include
favorable in- school and
out-of-school experiences as well as opportunities to conduct workshops and deliver presentations related to their field. Further, they
can also demonstrate their resourcefulness in terms of content mastery,
professional development, and time management.
Second,
teachers can enhance their self-efficacy through vicarious experience, which is
usually attained through observation, hearing, and reading. For example, they
can observe successful peers who have similar levels of proficiency and
experience, which can strengthen their belief and confidence in their own
capabilities to teach in similar ways. Besides, they can also critique their own
teaching through film or video-tape footage (self-modelling), while visualizing
themselves teaching in a future situation via cognitive self-modelling (The Education Hub, 2019).
Third, social
persuasion tends to have a strong influence on teacher self-efficacy. Authentic
and heartfelt feedback from the principal and colleagues, parental
acknowledgement and gratitude, and students’ learning enthusiasm are some
powerful forms of social persuasion that often increase teachers’
self-efficacy. Lastly, teachers can increase their self-efficacy through
positive interpretations of physiological and emotional states. For example,
they can boost their self-efficacy by instilling a sense of enthusiasm before
introducing new subject matter, while displaying favorable feelings after
delivering a fruitful lesson (The Education Hub, 2019).
5.3. Growth Zone,
Novel Goals, Future Orientation, and
Reframing
Celestine (2019) reiterated
that individuals can adopt four measures to improve their self-efficacy. First,
teachers should abandon their comfort zone to get involved in trial and error,
novel learning, and opportunities to engage in new, meaningful pursuits. While teachers
may find it frightening initially, they will eventually reap the benefits; the more they experience success when
venturing beyond their comfort zone,
the more they can improve their self-efficacy. Moreover, bouncing back
and recovering from failure also enables them to increase their resilience.
Teachers can venture into their growth zone by (1) developing a new skill, (2)
meeting new people at social events, (3) training for an event (e.g., a
fun-run, jungle-trekking), and (4) visiting a new place.
Second,
teachers can increase their self-efficacy by building and sustaining goals
across various areas, for example, work performance, healthful living, digital
skills development, and food security. Third, by looking at the bigger picture,
teachers can be motivated to improve their self-efficacy. They need to develop
the power to look beyond short-term losses and not letting them diminish
their self-trust and self-esteem. By affirming that they have future goals to
achieve and upholding this perspective, teachers can develop high
self-efficacy, which allows them to set priorities and implement their plans
more efficiently (Celestine, 2019).
Lastly,
teachers should reframe obstacles and barriers by regarding them as a natural
part of moving beyond their comfort zone and tackling fresh challenges.
Assessing difficult problems and issues in a constructive way enables them
reinforce their self- efficacy, which can be done in three ways. First,
teachers can set implementation intentions by creating an if-then plan and
deciding what actions they can take to eliminate those hindrances. Second,
teachers should regard thought provoking predicaments as though they were a
test of willpower, and subsequently attempt to find the most innovative
solution, while remaining calm and collected while putting the solution into
practice. Third, teachers should reflect on the hurdles and impediments that
they have successfully overcome, which helps bring previous mastery experiences
into view, thus allowing them to fortify their self-efficacy in the present (Celestine, 2019).
6. Limitations
Although it
has produced new information on relational teacher self-efficacy in the
Malaysian context, this study has some limitations. First, a questionnaire was
administered to collect data, which could cause social desirability bias,
whereby teachers might provide
socially acceptable answers rather than indicating their authentic opinions. Besides, using the questionnaire also
limited the ability to delve deeper into teachers’ responses, unlike interviews
or focus groups. Second, many teachers might not respond to the survey due to
personal and job constraints, thus yielding a potentially biased sample that
limited the representation of the target population. Third, the survey lacked
depth and flexibility because it solely relied on preset questions, thus
limiting the ability to capture the context or emotional nuances surrounding teachers'
answers. To increase generalizability of findings, future research should use
mixed methods (qualitative and qualitative) to gain deeper insight into the
topic. Lastly, future research should also employ data gathered from multiple
informant approaches (e.g., school administrators, students, teacher
supervisors) to obtain a wider range of perspectives on teacher relational
self-efficacy in different settings or contexts that can yield novel
information in terms of situational variations.
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate
This study has
strictly adhered to all ethical procedures involving the use of human subjects.
Informed consent was obtained from all respondents who were ascertained of
their anonymity, with their responses kept strictly private and confidential.
They were also informed that the study was of low risk and that they could stop
participating any time without any repercussions.
Acknowledgement
The authors
wish to thank all the participants of the study as well as Jesselton University College that has provided the technical facilities
to complete it. All authors have contributed equally to the study.
Funding
This study was partially funded by Jesselton University College, Sabah,
Malaysia.
Conflict of Interest
The authors report no potential conflict of interest regarding this study
in terms of the research or publication of this article.
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